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" ... But water is also crucial since as Paul Tackley, a professor of geophysical fluid dynamics at ETH Zurich, told me. Water, he says, makes plate tectonics easier by, in part, incorporating water into the crystal structure of minerals in Earth’s lithosphere, thereby making them weaker. Water changes volcanic basalt into soft, mushy talc, which enables the tectonic plates to slide along smoothly next to one another, I wrote in Sky & Telescope. ... "
" ... Diagram of Earth's interior showing the lithosphere, asthenosphere, and mantle. ... "
" ... The most interesting thing to me about Tharsis is why the three so-called Tharsis Montes—Ascraeus, Pavonis, and Ascraeus Montes—are arranged in a line, says Byrne. There must be a very old and very deep structure in the Martian lithosphere (the brittle, outer layer of the planet) along which magma rose to form those volcanoes, he says. ... "
" ... With no atmosphere or magnetic field, and a lithosphere rich in heavy elements, cosmic rays produce gamma-rays upon impacting the Moon. ... "