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" ... As it turns out, he says, there were confounders. Wallingford, Conn., appears to have the distinction of having once been the silversmithing capital of the world. Who knew? This honor meant that a lot of industry work there involved metals and something called “acid mist.” Those acid mists, says Swenberg, “are a known cause of nasal cancer. They were used for cleaning metals in these industries.” ... "
" ... Even if known confounders such as age are adjusted for, it is impossible for ecological analyses to adjust for all confounders. For example, countries that offer BCG routinely also offer many other vaccines at the same time. What if one of them is protective against COVID-19 and not BCG? Alternatively, countries that offer BCG routinely might have a much higher burden of many other infectious diseases and that might factor into protection against COVID-19. We don’t have any way of teasing such issues out in an ecological study. A randomized trial, on the other hand, can help avoid confounding. ... "
" ... Initial data evaluated by the researchers, based on linked community testing and mortality data, were all predicated on the same datasets, and therefore the same biases. However, more recent analysis of newer data has allowed investigators to control for “additional confounders increasing confidence in the association of the [variant of concern] with increased disease severity," the authors write. ... "
" ... The key results are found in Table 2 of the study. Out of 9,207 infants whose mothers took antidepressants one year before getting pregnant, 82 were later diagnosed with autism. Bérard et al. found that, after adjusting for various confounders, this group of infants had no increased risk of autism. Another group was infants whose mothers took antidepressants, in the first trimester: of these 4,200 infants, 40 were diagnosed with autism. Bérard et al. computed that the adjusted risk for this group was 16% lower than average. This difference was not statistically significant, though. ... "
" ... The researchers concluded that their findings “imply that the observational associations between 25OHD and risk of type 1 diabetes might be due to environmental confounders, such as latitude, which is correlated with exposure to sun and skin pigmentation, but this needs to be investigated in further studies.” ... "