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" ... How would you demonstrate causation rather than correlation? The standard method is to conduct a randomized controlled trial: take at least two randomly selected groups of people; “treat” one group with whatever you’re testing, and have the other one be a “control” group; and see whether what you’re testing makes a difference. If it does—and if there are enough similar studies with similar results—you can reasonably draw the conclusion that the “treatment” is causing the effect. That basically describes the studies supporting comprehension strategy instruction. ... "
" ... Let me unpack that. An example of the idea that correlation is not causation is the correlation between levels of cheese consumption and people who die strangled by their bedsheets. It’s a darkly humorous example, but to me I say everyone knows cheese gives you nightmares and if you are thrashing about in bed asleep your chances of coming unstuck in your bedsheets goes up! As such, when you see correlation you would do well to find the hidden link rather than dismiss it. ... "
" ... More significantly, the study was able to establish causation, rather than simply correlation, both by comparing workplaces in counties contiguous to state borders with workplaces in in adjacent counties on the other side of the state border and due to the mitigating effect of the staggered timing of the PFL acts in different states on the stage of the economic cycle. ... "
" ... “Association is not causation,” Ganjian explained. “The title [of the latest report] says it is associated, but it does not mean it causes those conditions.” ... "